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Mikaila's Blog (redirected from Mikaila)

Page history last edited by Hailee Rydmark 13 years, 5 months ago

 

History: 

*B.C.*

 

-evidence of fingerprints in early paintings and rock carving made by prehistoric humans

-picture writing of hands with ridge like patterns discovered in Nova Scotia

-Ancient Babylon, fingerprints were used on clay tablets for business transactions

>700

-ancient China used thumbprints are found on clay seals

-250: Erasistratus (ancient Greek physician) observes that his patient's pulse rates increase when they tell him lies (supposed to be the first lie detection test)

-44: Antistius examines the dead body of Julius Ceaser after his assassination and finds that there are twenty-three stab wounds only one of the stab wound was fatal

 *A.D*

-800: Arsenic oxide is the 1st produced commercially as a result of refining ore in iron and lead mining

-1000: Quintain shows that bloody palm prints are meant to frame a blind man of his mothers' murder

 

-1249: Hugh of Lucca (the great Italian Surgeon) takes an oath as medicolegal expert of the city of Bologna

-1248: Hsi Duan Yu ("The Washing Away of Wrongs") was perhaps the first book published talking about Forensic Anthropology, which offers some advice today.

-1302: Bartolomeo da Varignana of Bologna performs a medicolegal autopsy in a case of suspected murder of a nobleman (Azzolino)

-1507:Constitutio Criminalis Carolina, 'The Criminal Jurisdiction of Emperor Charles V. and Holy Roman Empire.

 -Pendel code based on Constitution Bamergenis Criminalis but far more in depth)

-1575: Ambroise Pare (French Surgon) published "Reports in Court" (widely regarded as first systematic treatise on legal medicine

 -1609: First Treatise on systematic document document examination published by Francois Demelle

-1658: Sir Thomas Browne pioneering forensic archaeologist discovers adipocere "Hydrio-Taphia,Urne-Burial" (scientific reference to fatty waxy, soap-like substance derived from decayed human corpses buried in moist, air-free spaces)

-1686:Marcello Malpighi notes in his treaties: ridges, spirals, and loops in fingerprints

     *no mention of value as a tool for individual identification

     *a layer of skin is named after him "Malpighi layer"

 

 

 

-1752: Mary Blandy tried for murdering father with Arsenic-found guilty and hung

-1775:Karl Wilhelm Scheele discovers that he could change arsenious oxide to arsenious acid which in contact with zinc produces arsine

     * later plays a great part in the forensic detection of arsenic

-1784: John Toms is convicted of murder on the basis of torn edge of a wad of newspaper in a pistol matching a remaining piece in his pocket

     *first document of physical matching

-1789: Antoine Francois Fourcroy (French Chemist) while disinterred bodies from cimitiere des Innocence (Cemetry of Innocent) in Paris describes adipocere

     -Antoine and Michel Augustin Thouret make crucial finding that adipocere is chemically similar to soap

 

                                                              

*1800s*

      - Thomas Bewick used engraving of his own fingerprints to identify books he published

     -pioneering French Doctor, Antoine Louis, worked on identifying C.O.D (cause of death), by distinguishing murder and suicide. 

-1810:Eugene Francois Vidocq in return for suspension of arrest and a jail sentence, makes a deal with the police to establish the first detective force, the Surete of Paris

     -First recorded use of question document analysis occurs in Germany chemical test for ink dye is applied to a document known as the 'Koenigin Handschrift'

-1813: as a way to identify Beligum prison warden began taking measurements of prisoners' heads, ears, feet and height   

-Mathieu Orfila, a chemistry teacher in Paris published "Traite de poison or Toxicologie Generale"

-1817:T.Bateman first discribes senile ecchymoses when he notes dark bloches, he determines they are caused by extravastion of blood and semen stains

-1823: John Evangelist Purkinji published his thesis discussing nine finerprint patterns

     *again no mention of the vaule of fingerprints for personal identification

 

-1828: William Nichol invents the polarizing light microscope

     -Sir Robert Christian gives evidence in the trail or William Burke

-1829:-Sir Robert Christian publishes "Treatise on Poison"

     * Madame Lefarge, accused for poisoning her husband with Arsenic, she was put on trail and was sentenced to the penitentiary. She was later released after ten years in prison and died the next year, claiming she was innocent in till the end.

 picture of arsenic

-1830's: Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet provides foundation for Bertillion's work by stating his belief that no two bodies were exactly alike

-1831:Erhard Friedrich Leuchs describes the diastatic action of salivary plalin (amylase) on starch

-1835: Henry Goddard one of Scotland Yard's original Bow Street Runners first uses bullet comparisons to catch murderer (comparison is based on a visble flaw in bullet which was traced back to a mold

-1839: Henry-Louis Bayard 1st reliable procedures for the microscopic detection of sperm

     *also microscopic characteristics of various different substance fabrics

     *took over large parts of forensic practice

     -Dr. John Davey recounts experiments on dead soldiers in Malta and Britian, using Mercury thermometer. (first attempt to detirmine body temperature after death)                      

-1840: Mathieu Bonaventure Orfila, Dean of Paris Medical Faculty is summoned to court on Lafarge case (he applies the Marsh test and correctly finds Arsenic in corpse

-1842: Edgar Allen Poe published "The Murders in the Rue Morgue"

 

-1843: Belgium Police began keeping files and used photography in the 1850s France and the U.S began using "mug shoots"

-1849: Bones and teeth remains used as evidence of murder given by a forensic team led by anatomy professor Dr. Jeffries Wyman

-1850: First multi-shot pistol introduced by Samuel Colt

-1851: Britian passes Arsenic Act in attempt to control avalibility of arsenic

     -Jean Servais STAS fist successful to identify vegtable poisons in body temperture

-1853:Ludwick Karol Teichmann

     *Paper crystallization of certian organic compounds of the blood, descibes it as perparation of Microscopic crystais of hemin (widely used for forensic medicine)

-1854: Richard Leach Maddox developes dry plate photography

     *makes prctical photographing for inmates for prison records

-1855: Ambroise August Tardieu first draws attention to petechial hemorrhages occurring in asphyxial deaths

     *although proved wrong by modern research proved it wrong

-1858:Sir William Hershel first uses fingerprints on native contracts

-1860: A Belgian Prison found a way of identifying criminals, the wardens would measure feet, heads, ears, and height.

     -Thomas Bell first discribes "pink teeth" (pathognomic of hanging or drowning)

     -French Chemist isolate amygdalin from bitter almonds

-1862:J. (Izaak) Wan Deen develops a presumptive test for blood using guaiac, a west Indian Shrub

     -June 17 inventor W.V. Adam patened handcuffs that used adjustable ratches- the first modern handcuff

-1863: Christian Friedrich Schonbein first to discover ability of hemoglobin to oxidize hydrogen peroxide making it foam

     -Taylor and Wilkes write a classic paper on determination of time since death form fall in body temperture

-1870s: Dr. Henry Faulds takes up study of "skin furrows" after noticing finger markings on specimens of "prehistoric" pottery

-1876:Cesare Lombroso publishes L'Umo Delinquente (Criminal Man) He belived that criminals had physiologial features which characterized them as criminals

-1877:Thomas Taylor suggusts that markings of the palms of hands and the tips of the fingers could be used for identification in criminal cases

     -the use of telegraph by fire and police departments begins in Albany, New York   

-1878: Date of publication of Thomas Dwight's Medico-leagal essay which raised questions on estimating stature from skeletal remains with measuring long bone proportionality, and how indicative of sex, height and age is the sternum

     -the telephone comes into use in police precinct house in Washington D.C.

-1879:Rudoplh Virchow is one of teh first to study bothe hair and recongnize its limitations

     -Alphonse Bertillion began working on elaborate system of measurements (lenght of the right ear) and breadth of heard -> identify criminals

-1880s: Cesare Lombroso applies mechanical device to measure changes in blood volume to discover physiological changes associated with lying

     -Dr. Henry Faulds forwards an explanation of his fingerprint classification system to Sir Charles Darwin

     -Dr. Faulds publishes an article discussing fingerprints as a means ofpersonal identification

     -Burman uses temperature graphs to determine since death

-1882: Gilbert Thompson of the U.S. Geological survey in New Mexico, uses his own fingerprints on a document to prevent forgery

-1883:Mark Twain "Life on the Mississippi" a murderer is identified by use of fingerprint identification

     *"Pudd'n Head Wilson" dramatic Court trail on fingerprint identification

     -Alphonse Bertillion identifies the first recidivist based on his invention of anthropometry

-1887:Arther Conan Doyle publishes the first Sherlock Holmes story in Beeton's Christmas Annual of London ("Study in Scarlet")

     -Womack first uses centigrade units to take body temperature to determine time of death

-1888:Chicago is the first U.S. to adapt the Bertillion identification -> applied techniques of the human body measurement used in anthropological classification of criminals

-1889:Alexandre Lacassagne is the first to try to individualize bullets to a gun barrel

-1891: Juan Vucetich- makes the first criminal fingerprint identification (it identified a woman named Rojas)

     -Hans Gross published "Criminal Investigation" fist comprehensive description of uses of physical evidence in solving crime.

-1892: Francis Galton publishes "Fingerprints" -> provides first statistical evidence for uniqueness in human fingerprints

     *describes method of fingerprint analyzing

-1894: George A. Dorsey appears to be the first to determine that the head of the humerusis a better indicator of sex then the head of the femur

     -Alfred Dreyfus is convicted of treason based on mistaken handwriting identification of Bertillon

-1896: Sir Edward Richard Henry develops that print classification system "Classification and Uses of Finger Prints"

-1898: Paul Jesrich takes photomicrographs of two bullets to compare , and subsequently individualize the minutiae 

Early 20th Century 

     -Frenchman Edmund Locard sets up forensic lab in Lyons

     *fascinated with what he calls "the problem of dust" how to trace evidence to solve crimes

     *"Locards Exchange principles"-whenever a criminal comes in contact with a victim, an object, or a crime scene he/she will leave evidence/take away evidence 

 

-1901: Paul Uhlenhuth develops the precipitant test for species  

     -Sir Edward Richard Henry is appointed head of the Scotland yard and forces 

     -the adoption of finger print identification replaces anthropometry 

     -Dr. Karl Landstiener, find that blood falls into different groups (A, B, AB, O)  

-1903: Professor R.A. Reiss sets up one of the first academic curricula in forensic science

     -the New York State Prison system begins the first systematic uses of fingerprints in test in the U.S. for criminal Identification

     -Leavenworth Federal Penitentiary (Kansas) Will West, a new inmate, is initially confused with a resident convict William West using anthropometry

-1904: Oskar and Rudolf Alder develops a presumptive test for blood based on benzidine, an new chemical developed by Merk

     -Revenstorf conceives the idea that diatoms could be used as a testing to distinguish antemortem from postmortem drowning

     -Locard publishes "L'enquete criminelle et les methodes scientifique" aka "Every Contact Leaves a Trace"

     -Georg Popp uses geological evidence in a criminal case for the first time (Eva Disch Case)

-1905: Theodore Roosevelt establishes the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

-1908:Georg Poop firmly established forensic geoplogy with the Margarethe Filbert

-1910:Victor Balthazard with Marcelle Lambert publishes first comprehensive hair study (Le poil l'homme et des animaux)

     -Edmund Locard establishes first laboratory

-1912: Masaeo Takayama develops another microscopic crystal test for hemoglobin using hemochromogen crystals

     -Edmund Locard demonstrates the value of poroscopy

-1913: Victor Balthazard publishes the first article on individualizing bullet markings

     -JJ Tompson builds the first mass spectrometer aka hyperbola spectrograph.

-1915: Leone Lattes, develops first antibody test for ABO blood groups, publishes "L'Individualtila' del sangue hella biologia, nella clinica, hella medicina, legale' basedon clinical issues, heritability, paternity, and typing of drieo stains

     -International Association for criminal Identification (the International Association of Identification as now as today) organized in Oakland California

-1916:Albert Schnider first uses a vaccum apparatus to collect trace evidence

-1920s: Georg Popp pioner the use of botanical identification in forensic work

     -Charles E. Waite is the first to catalog manufacturing data about weapons

     -Luke May pioneered striation analysis in tool mark comparisons including an attempt at statistical validation

     -Calvin Goddard with Charles E. Waite, Phillip O. Gravelle, and J.H. Fisher, perfect the comparison microscope for use in bullet comparison

  -Micheal Gerasimo develops a method of measuring the soft tissue in heads of corpses, eventually collecting enough empirical data to attempt a facial reconsturction

-1921: John Larson and Leonard Keeler design portable polygraph

     -John Larson combines measurements of blood pressure, pulse and respiration, relating their changes with  deception.

     -Schullar suggusts that frontal sinuses can be used for identifacation

-1923: Vittorio Sicacusa develops the absorbtion-elution test for ABO blood typing stains

     -Frye V. United States, polygraph test results were ruled inadmissable federal ruling indroduced the concept of general acceptance and the stated polygraph testing did not meet that criterion

-1924: August Vollmer, implemts the first U.S police crime laboratory

-1925:Savuro Sirai, is credited with the first recognition of secretion of group specific antigens into the body fluids other than blood

-1926: The case of Sacco and Vanzetti is responsible for popularizing the uses of the comparison microscpose for bullet comparison.

*Calvin Goddard's conclusions were upheld when the evidence was reexamined in 1961

         -Landsteiner and Levine first detect the M, N, and P blood factors leading to development of the MNSs and P typing systems

-1927: K.I. Yosida, conducts the first comprehensive investigation establishing the existence of serological isoantibodies in body fluids other then blood

-1929:Calvin Goddard's work on the St. Valentine's Day massacre leads to the founding of the Scientific crime Detection Laboratory on the campus of Northwestern University in Illinois

     -America Journal of Police Science is founded and published by staff of Goddard's Scienfic Crime Detection Laboratory 

-1930: Franz Josef Holzer develops the absorbtion-inhibiton ABO typing technique 

*becomes basis commonly used in forensic laboratories

-1931:Poole suggest the frontal sinus pattern is different even in identical twins

     *it give enough information to identify someone by the frontal sinus pattern

     -Federal Bureau of Investigation crime laboratory is created

-1932: Teodoro Gonzales of the Criminal Identification laboratory, introduces the "Dermal Nitrate" or "diphenyl-amine test" in the U.S. to detect Gunshot Residues

-1933: Frits Zernike invents the first interference contrast microscope, a phase contrast microscope, and in achievement for which he wins the Nobel prize of 1953

-1935: Franz Josef Holzer publishes the first paper addressing the usefulness of secretor staturs for forensic application

-1937: Walter Specht develops the chemiluminescent reagent luminol as a presumptive test for blood

     -Paul Kirk assumes leadership of the criminology program at the Universtity of California at Berkeley 

     -M. Polonovski and M. Jayle first identify haptoglobin

-1938: Landsteiner and A.S. Wiener first describe Rh blood groups

 

-1940: Vincent Hnizda id probaly the first to anaylze ignitable fluid

*He uses a vacuum distillation apparatus

-Murray Hill of the Bell labs initiates the study voiceprint identification.

*the technique is refined by L.G. Kersta

-1941: Frank Lundquist develops the acid phosphatase test for semen

-1945: Mourant first describes the Lewis blood group system

-1946: R.R. Race first describes the Kell blood group system

-M. Cutbrush, and colleagues first describe the Duffy blood group system

-August Vollmer establishes the School of Criminology at the University of

California Berkeley

*Paul Kirk presides over the major of criminalistics within the school

-Max Frei-Sulzer (founder of the first Swiss criminalistics lab), develops

the tape lift method of collecting trace evidence

-the American Academy of Forensic Science (AAFS) is formed in Chicago,

Illinois.

*group begins publishing of Journal of Forensic Science (JFS) 

-F.H. Allen and colleagues first describe the Kidd blood grouping system

-1951: Paul KIRK publishes Crime Investigation, one of the first comprehensive criminalistics and crime investigation texts that encompass theory in addition to practice.  

-James WATSON and Francis CRICK publish landmark paper identifying the structure of DNA.

-1953: R. F. BORKENSTEIN, captain of the Indiana State Police, invents the Breathalyzer for field sobriety testing.

-1954: De SARAM publishes careful and detailed measurements of temperature in control cases obtained from executed prisoners. His papers are considered landmarks in determination of time since death from body cooling.

-1955: GOLAY first shows WCOT (wall-coated open tubular) columns for Gas Chromatography to be theoretically ideal.

-1956:  De SARAM further publishes important papers on time since death.

-1957: A. S. WEINER and colleagues introduce the use of H-lectin to determine positively O blood type.

1958  FIDDES and PATTEN write a classic paper on determination of time since death from cooling.  

-HIRSHFELD first identifies the polymorphic nature of group specific component (Gc).

-1959: HARRISON and GILROY introduce a qualitative colorimetric chemical test to detect the presence of barium, antimony and lead on the hands of individuals who fired firearms.  
Maurice MÜLLER
, a Swiss scientist, adapts the Ouchterlony antibody-antigen diffusion test for precipiten testing to determine species.

-1960s: 
Marshall and co-workers write a series of papers on determination of time since death from postmortem cooling.  
-Lucas
 describes the application of gas chromatography (GC) to the identification of petroleum products in the forensic laboratory and discusses potential limitations in the brand identity of gasoline.  

-Hungary becomes the first country in Europe to carry out research in the subject of lip prints.

-1961: D.A. Hopkinson and colleagues first identify the polymorphic nature of erythrocyte acid phosphatase (EAP).

-1963: N. SPENCER and colleagues first identiy the polymorphic nature of red cell phosphogluco-mutase (PGM).

1964: R. A. FILDES and H. HARRIS first identiy the polymorphic nature of red cell adenylate cyclase (AK).

1966: Brian J. CULLIFORD and Brian Wraxell develop the immuno-electrophoretic technique for haptoglobin typing in bloodstains.

  -The International Association of Forensic Sciences (IAFS) is formed. It is unique in that it is an association in name only. It has no members, no permanent secretariat and no budget.

  -Culliford initiates the development of gel-based methods to test for isoenzymes in dried bloodstains.

*development methods for testing proteins and isoenzymes in both blood and other body fluids

-1967: SPENCER and colleagues first identiy the polymorphic nature of red cell adenosine deaminase (ADA).

1968: Y. TSUCHIHASHI and T. SUZUKI start a three year study, examining the lip prints of 1364 persons at the Department of Forensic Odontology at Tokyo University. They will come to the conclusion that lip prints are unique to each individual. The science of Cheiloscopy gets an unprece-dented boost.

  -CULLIFORD publishes The Examination and Typing of Bloodstains in the Crime Laboratory, generally accepted as responsible for disseminating reliable protocols for the typing of polymorphic protein and enzyme markers to the United States and worldwide.

-1971: HOPKINSON and colleagues first identify the polymorphic nature of esterase D (ESD).

-1973:  The detection of gunshot residue (GSR) using scanning electron microscopy with electron dispersive X-rays (SEMEDX) technology is developed by J. E. WESSEL, P. F. JONES, Q. Y. KWAN, R. S. NESBITT and E. J. RATTIN at Aerospace Corporation.

-1974: J. KOMPF and colleagues, working in Germany, first identify the polymorphic nature of red cell glyoxylase (GLO).

-1975: The Federal Rules of Evidence, originally promulgated by the U.S. Supreme Court, are enacted as a congressional statute. They are based on the relevancy standard in which scientific evidence that is deemed more prejudicial than probative may not be admitted.

  -ZORO and HADLEY in the United Kingdom first evaluate GC-MS for forensic purposes.

-1976:  
Fuseo MATSUMUR, a trace evidence examiner at the Saga Prefectural Crime Laboratory of the National Police Agency of Japan, notices his own fingerprints developing on microscope slides while mounting hairs from a taxi driver murder case. He relates the information to co-worker Masato SOBA, a latent print examiner. SOBA would later that year be the first to develop latent prints intentionally by “Superglue®” fuming.

-1977: The Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrophoto-meter (FTIR) is adapted for use in the forensic laboratory.  
-The FBI introduces the beginnings of its Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) with the first computerized scans of fingerprints.  
Brian WRAXALL and Mark STOLOROW develop the “multisystem” method for testing the PGM, ESD, and GLO isoenzyme systems simultaneously. They also develop methods for typing blood serum proteins such as haptoglobin and Gc.

-1978: American geneticists discover a region of DNA that does not hold any genetic information and which is extremely variable between individuals.

-1980: The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is first conceived by Kerry MULLIS, while he is working at Cetus Corporation. The first paper on the technique was not published until 1985.

-1983: Sir Alec JEFFREYS a research fellow at the Lister Institute, Leicester University, discovers a method of identifying individuals from DNA - Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP). He dubs it 'DNA Fingerprinting' - a revolutionary new technique in Forensic Science, which is perhaps the greates single Forensic Discovery of the 20th Century.

-1984: Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) passed. This piece of legislation governs the handling of suspects and prisoners.

  1985: Police in the UK first use forensic DNA profiling.

 -Kerry Mullis discovers Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) method of replicating particular regions of a DNA molecule.

 -1986:  The Human Genetics Group at Cetus Corporation, led by Henry Erlich, develops the PCR technique for a number of clinical and forensic applications. This results in development of the first commercial PCR typing kit specifically for forensic use, HLA DQa (DQA1), about 2 years later. 

-In People v. Pestinikas, Edward Blake first uses PCR-based DNA testing (HLA DQa) , to confirm different autopsy samples to be from the same person. The evidence is accepted by a civil court.

(This is also the first use of any kind of DNA testing in the United States) 

-1987:In the UK, police use DNA profiling in the celebrated PITCHFORK case to clear a seventeen year old suspect of two rape-murders. Police collect blood samples from over 5,000 local men to identify the perpetrator, Colin PITCHFORK. 

Also in the UK, Robert MELIAS is convicted of rape. He becomes the first person to be convicted of a crime on the basis of DNA evidence.  
-DNA profiling is introduced for the first time in a U.S. criminal court. Based on RFLP analysis performed by Lifecodes, Tommy Lee ANDREWS is convicted of a series of sexual assaults in Orlando, Florida.
  
-New York v. CASTRO is the first case in which the admissibility of DNA is seriously challenged. It sets in motion a string of events that culminate in a call for certification, accreditation, standardization, and quality control guidelines for both DNA laboratories and the general forensic community.

-1988:LEWELLEN, McCURDY, HORTON, and ASSELIN, LESLIE, McKINLEY publish milestone papers introducing a novel procedure for the analysis of drugs in whole blood by homogeneous enzyme immunoassay (EMIT).  

-1989: In the USA, Gary DOTSON becomes the first person to have a conviction overturned on the basis of DNA evidence. DOTSON has served 8 years of a 25-50 year sentence for rape.
-The Federal Government and several States and Territories begin developing regulatory standards for DNA collection and handling procedures. 
-Australia's first court case involving DNA evidence. In an ACT court, Desmond APPLEBEE is convicted of three counts of sexual assault (when the results were in he changed his mind)  
- police secure the conviction of George KAUFMAN who raped sixteen women over a four year period in Melbourne's south eastern suburbs. Confronted with DNA evidence, KAUFMAN confesses.
-K. Kasai and colleagues publish the first paper suggesting the D1S80 locus (pMCT118) for forensic DNA analysis. 

-1990: Walsh Automation Inc. launches development of an automated imaging system called the Integrated Ballistics Identification System, or IBIS, for comparison of the marks left on fired bullets, cartridge cases, and shell casings.

-1991:  In response to concerns about the practice of forensic DNA analysis the National Research Council Committee on Forensic DNA (NRC I) publishes DNA Technology in Forensic Science.

-1992: Thomas Caskey and colleagues publish the first paper suggesting the use of short tandem repeats for forensic DNA analysis

-The FBI contracts with Mnemonic Systems to develop Drugfire, an automated imaging system to compare marks left on cartridge cases and shell casings. The ability to compare fired bullets is subsequently added.
-National Institute of Forensic Science
commences operations.

-1993:In Daubert et al. v. Merrell Dow, a U.S. federal court relaxes the FRYE standard for admission of scientific evidence and conferre on the judge a “gatekeeping” role. 
-Roche Molecular Systems
(formerly Cetus) releases a set of five additional DNA markers (“polymarker”) to add to the HLA-DQA1 forensic DNA typing system.

-1994:The world's first national DNA database commences operations in the UK on 10 April 1995.

-1995 :a second National Research Council Committee on Forensic DNA (NRC II) is convened and publishes The Evaluation of Forensic DNA Evidence.

-1996: Rodney Winters is convicted of the rape and murder of a woman at South Australia's Edinburgh Air Force base 14 years earlier. After DNA profiling matches him to semen found on the dead woman, Winters confesses. 
-The FBI introduces computerized searches of the AFIS fingerprint database. (Live scan and card scan devices allow interdepartme
ntal submissions)

- mitochondrial DNA evidence is used in a court for the first time.

-Police services endorse the establishment of a national criminal DNA database
-In the USA, the FBI sets up the National DNA Index System, enabling city, county, state and federal law enforcement agencies to compare DNA profiles electronically.

-1998:The FBI upgrades its computerized fingerprint database and implements the Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS), allowing paperless submission, storage, and search capabilities 

-1999:A Memorandum of Understanding is signed between the FBI and ATF, allowing the use of the National Integrated Ballistics Network (NIBIN)

(exchange of firearms data between Drugfire and IBIS) 
  Forensic Science Service announces that the number of DNA profiles of suspects and convicted criminals has reached one million or one third of the estimated criminally active population

bibliography:

www.crimezzz.net/forensic_history/.UNUSED/text.htm

www.theabfa.org/

inreferencetomurder.com/htm/forensic.html

http://library.med.utah.edu/kw/osteo/forensics/

http://web.utk.edu/anthrop/index.htm

www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/forensic/timeline.html

www.solidrock-virtalschool.com/vidio/235_Forensic%20anthropolgy.pdf

mikailastem@gmail.com

  

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